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Example sentences for: upregulating
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Not only can these factors damage DNA and host tissues but can modulate inflammatory reactions [ 60 ] and stimulate apoptosis [ 64 ] , a major mechanism leading to loss of CD4 +T cells [ 65 ] . TNF-α also has the capacity to perturb the clinical condition in AIDS by strongly upregulating the transcription of the HIV genome [ 66 ] . In fact, it has been proposed [ 67 ] that AIDS is in many ways a TNF-α disease since this cytokine it is a potent activator of NF-kB, and an inducer of HIV genome transcription and apoptosis in HIV-infected T cells.
In induced models of autoimmunity, the CD28-B7 interaction has been shown to regulate disease susceptibility by rendering autoreactive T cells anergic, or alternatively by upregulating the threshold for autoreactive T-cell activation [ 30 ] . Furthermore, we previously showed that impaired Fas-mediated activation-induced cell death (AICD) of autoreactive T-helper-1 cells may be responsible for the development of PGIA [ 20 ] . Therefore, AICD and/or T-cell anergy, but not the CD4 +CD25 +regulatory T cells, may be responsible for deletion or inactivation of autoreactive T cells in autoimmune arthritis.
5 ng/ml and 5 ng/ml) were also found (data not shown) to be equally effective in upregulating α-SMA in accordance with other data [ 45 46 ] .
IL-4 can down-regulate the production of proinflammatory and Th1-type cytokines by inducing mRNA degradation and upregulating the expression of inhibitors of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1Ra [ 3, 4].
Previous work has suggested that although SERCA expression in limb muscles seems to respond to increases in functional load by upregulating SERCA 2 (the slow SERCA isoform) and downregulating SERCA 1 (the fast isoform) [ 50 ] , similar responses might not occur in diaphragm [ 51 ] . Our data showing no difference in the expression of SERCA 1 and SERCA 2 between emphysematous and control animals are consistent with this finding.
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