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Example sentences for: vsm
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In tasks requiring the use of spatial skills, a sexually dimorphic difference has been consistently demonstrated in which males reliably outperform females [ 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ] . This sex difference is most likely due to the presence of testosterone or more likely its metabolite estradiol, in brain [ 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ] . Because phytoestrogens have the ability to bind estrogen receptors and alter many of the biological responses that are evoked by physiological estrogens [ 25 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 ] , we determined phytoestrogens affects on VSM in adult rats.
Dietary phytoestrogens sex reversed VSM, as expressed in the radial-arm maze by enhancing spatial memory in females but inhibited this ability in males, this finding corresponds to research regarding increased dementia observed in aged men consuming high tofu levels [ 44 ] . However, while it is important to establish the influence of dietary phytoestrogens on brain function and behavior in animal models, the true significance in humans remains to be determined as it relates to the present findings.
The available research regarding cognitive function and phytoestrogens suggests that large amounts of phytoestrogens, consumed as tofu, have an adverse influence on cognitive ability in men, where decreased brain weight, increased ventricular size and dementia have been reported [ 44 ] . In ovariectomized female rats, on the other hand, phytoestrogen treatments resulted in a dose-dependent improvement of VSM [ 45 ] . This improvement in cognitive ability in phytoestrogen treated females may be due in part to the increased presence of choline acetyltransferase messenger RNA in the frontal cortex, which has been shown to be associated with protection and enhancement of cognitive function [ 45 ] . Furthermore, we have shown that phytoestrogens significantly affect the brain calcium-binding protein calbindin (CALB), which acts as a buffer by binding intracellular calcium and plays an important role in mediating cell proliferation, programmed cell death (apoptosis), and neurotoxicity [ 48 49 50 51 52 ] . This neuroprotective mechanism via CALB appears to be important in neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease [ 48 49 50 51 52 ] . Additionally, Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) seems to play an important role in mediating functional neuronal maturation and responses to certain stimuli in the brain [ 53 54 55 ] . The expression of COX-2 is associated with key pathophysiologic events in Alzheimer's disease: deposition of beta-amyloid protein in neuritic plaques within the hippocampus and cortex [ 53 54 55 ] . Of particular importance to this study is the fact that COX-2 has been shown to be influenced by steroidal hormones [ 53 54 55 ] . Therefore, the expression of COX-2 in the frontal cortex may also be hormonally regulated and relevant to cognitive decline.
In contrast, on the 4-arm task, male VSM dominance appeared to be dependant upon diet (or after the diet switch).
Additionally, brain regions critical for diverse parameters of VSM (working vs. reference memory) were assayed to determine phytoestrogen, CALB and COX-2 levels.
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