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Example sentences for: messengers
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They also respond by the localized activation of a cell-death program, designated the hypersensitive response (HR), and by the systemic activation of cellular and molecular defenses, termed systemic acquired resistance (SAR) [ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ] . Second messengers that contribute to the development of the systemic response include reactive oxygen species (ROS), SA, JA and ethylene [ 8 9 10 ] . There is evidence for commonalities between plant responses to pathogens (referred to as defense responses) and environmental stresses (referred to as stress responses) [ 11 12 ] . Despite similarities, however, a plant's response to each environmental challenge is unique and tailored to increasing the plant's ability to survive the inciting stress [ 13 14 15 16 ] .
Organic phosphate compounds are the central metabolites of all biological systems [ 1 2 ] . Some are the basic building blocks of nucleic acids, some like ATP and GTP, are additionally, cellular energy stores, others like cAMP or cGMP are messengers in signal transduction, and, yet others, such as FAD, NAD, thiamine phosphates and pyridoxal phosphate are cofactors for a range of enzymes [ 1 2 ] . Protein domains belonging to a relatively small set of structural folds are known to bind or catalyze reactions that utilize these organic phosphate compounds (see SCOP database: http://scop.mrc-lmb.cam.ac.uk/scop/) [ 3 4 ] . Several of these folds trace back to some of the earliest phases of the evolution of the protein world, and participate in a wide range of disparate biological functions in extant proteins [ 4 5 ] . Some folds, such as the P-loop fold, the Rossmann fold and the Hsp70-like fold, have been well studied, and comprise mainly of dedicated nucleotide binding or hydrolyzing proteins [ 6 7 8 9 ] . Others, such as the palm-domain, which is found in adenylyl cyclases and various nucleic acid polymerases, belong to more generalized protein folds that contain representatives with diverse biochemical activities [ 4 10 11 ] . Current availability of extensive genome sequence data, allows one to identify less numerous, nevertheless biological important organic phosphate-binding domains that may have previous eluded detection.
Messengers such as Ca 2+, cyclic nucleotides (cAMP and cGMP), hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) and nitric oxide transduce the perceived stimulus to proteins that initiate a response.
Abscisic acid response elements (ABREs) are important during the plant's response to abiotic stresses such as dehydration, salinity and cold, all of which are ABA-mediated [ 82 83 ] . There is evidence that ROS are involved in ABA signaling [ 84 ] . The enrichment of the ABRE motif in the promoter sequences of the genes in the stress cDNA collection may reflect crosstalk among stress signaling pathways mediated by common second messengers, such as H 2 O 2 . The over-representation of the SA-inducible element in the promoter sequences of the genes in the stress cDNA collection, especially those in the SA library, further validates the enrichment of the stressor-specific genes using the SSH technique and suggests that these genes may be regulated by the changes in the levels of SA that occurs in stress responses [ 85 ] .
The diffusion of these soluble second messengers leads to the activation of PKA and PKC at specific subcellular locations [ 3 4 ] . The two families of the regulatory subunits of PKA, RI and RII, have distinct cAMP binding properties and phosphorylation states [ 4 5 ] . Each family has two different isoforms, a and (3, resulting in four distinct types, RIα, RIβ, RIIα, RIIβ.
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